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Figure 5-8 illustrates the following about the values of the actual and formal parameters at various stages in the execution of the method: Before the method call, variables A1 and A2, which will be used as the actual parameters, are already on the stack. By the beginning of the method, the names of the formal parameters have been set as aliases for the actual parameters. Variables A1 and f1 refer to the same memory location, and A2 and f2 refer to the same memory location. At the end of the method, both f2 and the field of the object of f1 have been incremented by 5. After method execution, the names of the formal parameters are out of scope, but the values of both A1, the reference type, and A2, the value type, have been changed by the activity in the method.

In the preceding two chapters, we saw how to encapsulate behavior and information with classes. Using the concepts of association, composition, aggregation, and derivation, we modeled relationships between those classes and looked at some of the benefits of polymorphism along with the use and abuse of virtual functions and their implied contracts with derived classes. In this chapter, we ll look at a functional (rather than class-based) approach to composition and extensibility, and see how we can use this to implement some of the patterns that have previously required us to burn our one and only base class and override virtual functions; and all with the added benefit of a looser coupling between classes. Let s start with another example. This time, we want to build a system that processes incoming (electronic) documents prior to publication. We might want to do an automated spellcheck, repaginate, perform a machine translation for a foreign-language website, or perform one of any other number of operations that our editors will devise during the development process and beyond. After some business analysis, our platform team has given us a class called Document, which is shown in Example 5-1. This is their baby, and we re not allowed to mess with it.

public sealed class Document { // Get/set document text public string Text { get; set; } // Date of the document

public DateTime DocumentDate { get; set; } public string Author { get; set; }

}

Output parameters are used to pass data from inside the method back out to the calling code. They are very similar to reference parameters. Like reference parameters, output parameters have the following requirements: You must use a modifier in both the method declaration and the invocation. With output parameters, the modifier is out, rather than ref. The actual parameter must be a variable it cannot be another type of expression. For example, the following code declares a method called MyMethod, which takes a single output parameter. out modifier void MyMethod( out int val ) { ... } ... int y = 1; MyMethod ( out y ); out modifier

Two classes are said to be coupled if a change to one requires a change to another. We saw examples of that in the previous chapter. When we created our NamedPerson class, it required changes to the FirefighterBase and the Administrator classes. We therefore say that FirefighterBase and Administrator are coupled to NamedPerson. Of course, any class or function that refers to another class or function is coupled to that class that s unavoidable (indeed, desirable). But to make testing simpler and systems more reliable, we try to ensure that we minimize the number of other types to which any class or function is coupled, and that we minimize the number of couplings between any two types. That way, any given change to a class will have a minimal number of knock-on effects elsewhere in the system. We also try to ensure that we organize classes into conceptual groupings called layers so that more tightly coupled classes live together in one layer, and that there are a minimal number of well-controlled couplings between layers. As part of that layered approach, it is usual to try to ensure that most couplings go one-way; classes of a lower layer should not depend on classes in a layer above. That way, we can further limit (and understand) the way changes propagate through the system. The layers act like firewalls, blocking the further impact of a change. As usual with software design, these disciplines are not hard-and-fast rules, and they are not imposed by the platform or language; but they are common practices that the platform and language are designed to support.

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